Dissertation / Essay Writing Guide

Dissertation / Essay Writing Guide

2018

Main Areas of Assessment:

+ Historians will assess UG written work in four main areas (in no particular order):

I.            Presentation of argument

II.           Structure

III.          Use of sources

IV.          Style / Writing

This guide is therefore organized along those lines.

I. Structure:

+ A dissertation / essay is like a Russian matryoshka doll: a big essay within which there are lots of

smaller, embedded essays. Even academic monographs are like this so, in a sense, your academic career is merely expanding the most basic five-paragraph essay that you (hopefully) were taught in school.

1.    Introduction (~10%)

2.    Body (Chapters or Sub-headings) (~80%)

- Each should present a single, supporting argument that is germane to the main argument of the essay / dissertation.

- These minor arguments should be explained, or at least hinted at, in the introduction of the essay / dissertation (see below).

3. Conclusion (~10%)

.     Each of these sections are, in fact, organized in exactly the same way: intro, body (sections of evidence), and conclusion

.     In fact, paragraphs even follow this rudimentary structure (see below)

+ An important aspect of essay / dissertation structure — perhaps the most challenging of all —are

transitions. You have to establish a ‘train of thought’ that any reader can follow. The best works are

those in which areader does not have to stop partway through and ask, ‘Wait, how did I get from A to   B?’ or,worse still, ‘Why the hell am I reading about [X topic] right now? What does this have to do with anything?!’ [Imagine this happening at 1am after the lecturer has read two other pieces of assessed work and is increasingly frustrated.]

A Standard Introduction:

+ There are many ways to introduce your essay / dissertation, but here is a very basic template. Each section represents a single, coherent paragraph (with some exceptions noted below).

1.    [OPTIONAL] Write a paragraph to ‘set the stage’ or ‘establish the tone’ of the piece. This could include a very interesting analysis of your primary sources, or a quote from a primary source    that neatly demonstrates your primary argument.

.     In some cases, drawing from recent events is acceptable. For example, if your dissertation is  on the history of public policy and prostitution, you might draw on a particularly hypocritical government initiative regarding the suppression of sex work — but only if it relates to the

main argument that you are intending to make.

.     For example, in my journal article on ‘self-discipline’ and Japanese soldiers, I told a story about a ‘failed’ kamikaze pilot who was still using his wartime training (‘self-criticism’

through diary writing) in order to criticize the war effort. This was to show the unpredictability of self-discipline, which was the main argument of the article.

.    This sort of opening gambit can be quite risky, so it is really optional, and you should be sure its message does not simply confuse (or worse, unintentionally amuse) the reader.

2.    Presentation of the main argument: this is probably the most important paragraph in the entire dissertation / essay.

.     Here, you must show your ‘stuff’ as a budding thinker. Do you have an original idea? What is the intellectual justification for your argument? It must be succinct, clear, and all your own.

.    This ‘main argument’ will dominate the entire discussion in the dissertation / essay. All evidence ultimately serves it, and every minor argument or point you make is also

subservient to it. If evidence in your piece does not relate to this argument, delete it because it has no place there, no matter how interesting it might be.

. Thought exercise : imagine your grandmother asking you what your thesis is on. How would you explain it in 2-3 sentences?

.     Printout your main thesis, tape it to your computer monitor or desktop, and make it your mantra for the entirety of the writing process.

o Problem: ‘ I can’t develop a main argument’ or ‘My main argument isn’tany good’ or ‘ I keep changing my main argument.’

o This is normal. One option: when you come to the end of the first complete draft of your dissertation / essay, have a look over it and decide what the main point is.

What ties all of the evidence together? Put that into the beginning of the

dissertation / essay, andre-edit the entire work to make sure it fits the main argument.

o For a long work, like a dissertation, you may do this more than once.

o Do NOT become paralyzed by waiting for an ingenious idea to emerge, as it may

require you to write and work through the primary sources for this flash of brilliance to take place. If all else fails, start writing / analyzing the primary sources.

. Protip: Dissertations are often written around primary sources —don’t put the horse before the cart by rigidly fixing on an argument and then

searching fruitlessly for sources.

3.    Discussion of historiography: here, you show us how your main argument fits into the current scholarly work on the subject.

.    What are the main arguments that others have put forward on your subject?

.    Are there any major themes that pull together many publications? (see the ‘listing’ problem below)

o Avoid ‘a bit of both’ statements: ‘Historian A and Historian B disagree, but in reality  it’sa bit of both.’ This is A-level writing, and shows a lack of independent thought in the essay.

o Avoid ‘listing’ historical arguments: the main point of this paragraph is to show where you fit in, and what you think of others’ arguments.

. For example, there-evaluation of Chinese protoindustrialization can include a single citation to Kenneth Pomeranz and R Bin Wong, whilst the

‘involution’ theory could include Ramon Myers and Philip CC Huang. You

might feel that the protoindustrialization theory is better than Huanget alia, but that it neglects the importance of national education, which is your

thesis / contribution / main argument, etc …

.     [OPTIONAL] Finally, you might also tellus the ‘critical theory’ (if any) that you’reworking with. Have you been inspired by your interpretation of Spivak’s ‘subaltern’ or Foucault’s

‘governmentality’? This can be a great way to show that you’rewriting above the UG level, and possibly have an academic future beyond this dissertation.

4.    Presentation of evidence: this explains what kind of sources you will be using —especially your primary sources.

.     Not everyone does this, but I think it is good form. It alerts the reader to what kind of texts you will be analyzing closely, and why they’re relevant.

.     For example, when I wrote about the importance of ‘self-discipline’ to identity formation, I    explained why soldiers’ diaries were useful (as opposed to, for example, children’s literature or women’s magazines); I pointed out that soldiers have to make decisions with immediate   consequences, and therefore have to sort out for themselves what kind of men they are

before making these decisions —diaries are good pieces of evidence for this thinking process.

.    This might be a goodtime to talk some more about the ‘critical theory’ you’re using (if any) and how it applies to your use of primary sources.

.     Finally, this allows you to ‘showoff’ a bit if you’ve done some original archival research, or  went to any special collections in libraries or museums. Historians love this sort of thing, so don’t be shy.

5.    Discussion of the dissertation / essay structure: tellus what the ‘chapters’ or ‘sub-headings’ are going to be about. At the end of this paragraph, explain how this chain of evidence is related to  the main argument that you outline above.

6.    [OPTIONAL]: once again, sometimes scholars like to conclude the introduction with an

interesting anecdote or use of primary sources. This helps show the reader what they’re in for,  and it might be a goodtime to give a ‘taster’ for how the theoretical framework (if any) and the main argument will be employed throughout the essay / dissertation.

+ The most important thing to remember is that this introduction be short and clear. Layout what you’re up to in the essay / diss, and then get on with it.

.     If the introis more than 10% of the entire work, it’s probably too long.

Paragraphs

+ Recently, journalistic English has ruined the art of the paragraph; especially in online news, a

‘paragraph’ is simply one or two sentences without any internal coherency. Do NOT imitate this style for academic writing, even if your favorite broadsheet employs it.

.     Paragraphs in a sub-heading (or “chapter”) area string of singular, coherent ideas backed by evidence that must be connected together.

o The outline for how these ideas (and evidence) will proceed should be explained (or at least hinted at) in the “introductory” paragraph for the sub-heading (or “chapter”).

o The connections between the paragraphs are called “transitions.” A failure to employ  adequate transitioning between paragraphs will leave your reader confused regarding your “train of thought.”

.    A paragraph should, in the first or second sentence, present a single idea to be discussed.

o Make an effort to explain how this idea relates to your main argument, or the argument of the particular “chapter” or sub-heading of the essay.

.     Evidence will follow, and make sure that all of this evidence is germane to the idea you’re discussing in the paragraph.

.    The paragraph should end by re-iterating its single, main idea, and how the evidence presented has been relevant to it.

.     Finally, the paragraph might hint at what idea will be presented in the next paragraph, and how it relates to what you’ve just discussed.

Style:

Common errors in writing have demonstrated an ongoing failure of the educations system to teach you proper writing. Do not worry, however, as this is a learned skill, not a natural ‘gift.’ Some have to work   harder than others, but anyone accepted to a degree programme at a top university like Edinburgh can learn to write professionally.

+ Do not use antiquated expressions or style.

.     If you are using a lot of older sources, be careful that they do not affect your style.

.    Also, do not use weak phrasing: ‘It could be argued that it was possible for the Chinese to     embrace foreign military technology during the “Self-Strengthening Movement.”’ => ‘The     Chinese embraced foreign military technology during the “Self-Strengthening Movement.”’

o Whenever you try to avoid making a point with lofty language, we see straight through your ruse and know that you lack confidence, or simply are guessing. Trying to sound    like an actor on ‘Downtown Abbey’ is extremely anachronistic and completely

unconvincing. If you have a point, simply make that point in strong, decisive English.

.    Avoid all colloquialisms. Written English is different from spoken English. If you write like you speak (or text on your mobile), your writing will appear childish and unprofessional.

o You need to emulate professional writing, so find a contemporary historian (writing in the last 30 years) whose style you admire, and emulate him/her.

+ Simple errors: these should NEVER appear in ANY assessed work at Edinburgh.

.    “Don’t” use contractions. Can’t => Cannot, didn’t => did not.

o Contractions area representation of spoken English, which you must abandon in your assessed work.

.     Use of apostrophes: if you do not know how to do this properly, you will invariably succeed in infuriating your tutors.

o One of the most common errors: “Its” (genitive) vs. “It’s” (contraction of “it is,” which you should not use in an essay anyway) = learn the difference. DO NOT make this

mistake in assessed work.

o DO NOT USE APOSTROPHES TO MAKE PLURAL NOUNS.

. E.g.: ‘The Rebel’s were a major influence behind the construction of China’s new military forces.’ NO NO NO. ‘The Rebels were …’

. Rebels = more than one Rebel; Rebel’s = belonging to one Rebel; Rebels’ = belonging to more than one Rebel.

+  Do NOT begin sentences with conjunctions, including: ‘and,’ ‘but,’ ‘yet’ …

.     E.g.: ‘The Japanese had indeed put many options on the table after the Ōyama Incident. But, the Chinese Nationalists were notable to negotiate with Japan by 1937.’ => ‘The Japanese had

indeed put many options on the table after the Ōyama Incident. The Chinese Nationalists were not, however, able to negotiate with Japan by 1937.’

+ Although the following ‘rule’ is not really a hard and fast one, I try to avoid beginning sentences with     ‘however.’ You can usually embed it in the sentence anyway. (‘However, Japan’s rise to power was …’ => ‘Japan’s rise to power, however, was …’)

.     Be careful not to continually contradict yourself with one ‘however’ after another. As a rule of thumb, only use ‘however’ (or ‘nevertheless,’ ‘still,’ etc.) once per paragraph.

+ Avoid relying on a limited vocabulary: do not use the same word in one sentence, and even try to avoid doing so in the following sentence as well. Here’san example of bad writing:

.     ‘Japanese hegemony sought, above all, to establish hegemonic relations in the cultural sphere,    because this was the most insidious form of hegemony. Hegemony is, by any standard, a form of direct imperialism, because such relations, even without military power, are still hegemonic.’

.     Be careful of the fact that the verb and noun forms of the same word are still redundant: ‘The main cause of Japanese imperialism was finance capital, which caused the expansion of

imbalanced business relations, although the chain of causation is often difficult to see clearly at first.’

+ Whenever you use ‘one the other hand,’ it must be preceded by ‘on the one hand.’

+ ‘Then’ vs. ‘than’: please make sure you know the difference …

+ Semi-colons (;) should be used to link two complete sentences that arepresenting the same idea or evidence. Example: ‘Finance Minister Takahashi Korekiyo’s assassination at the hands of far rightwing “young officers” was the ultimate irony in the economic and political history of modern Japan; the

desperate poverty that motivated the young officers to attack the symbols of capitalism was resolved, after all, through Takahashi’s 1932 “Rural Revitalization” program and the monetarization of Japan’s    debt.’

.    Semi-colons may also be used to list things, but preferably lists that include short, complete  sentences. Example: ‘Takahashi Korekiyo’s policies pulled Japan out of the Great Depression ahead of every European economy: the Rural Revitalization program freed farmers from

predatory loans issued by private banks; the devaluation of the yen made Japanese exports    extremely competitive on the global market; and Takahashi’s opposition to military spending ensured that increased liquidity in the market would not merely disappear down the drain of expensive foreign wars of aggression.’

.     In Britain, it is also acceptable to begin shorter lists with a semi-colon. Example: ‘There were

three main factors that led to the Russian expansion east; the destruction of the Khanate based in Astrakhan, the allure of the Siberian fur trade, and the establishment of a new empire under  Peter the Great.’

+ “Which” vs. “that”: very tricky, so consult grammar guides such as The Chicago Manual of Style and do your best.